AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF Victoria Reishus for the Master of Science in Physical Education presented July 1996 Title: The Differences Between Male and Female Division I. II. and III Abstract approved: ---f--t.~""-"':,,",-"fAc~~-(f-"""""""""':;';""'''''''"'''';L....>,,"'''''''I;Ioo.r----- The purpose of t~is s udy was to determine if there wa difference in the ~ leadership style and personality traits between male and female athletic directors. The subjects who participated in this study were athletic directors from Division' (N=9), Division II (N=5), and Division III (N=7) institutions. A total of 23 male athletic directors and 19 female athletic directors were utilized in this study. The second group of participants in this study were coaches from Division I (N=21), Division II (N=11), and Division III (N=9) institutions. An independent t-test was performed to show differences between male and female athletic directors on leadership styles. A Chi-Square was used to analyze the differences between male and female athletic directors' personality traits. A one-way ANOVA was used to determine the differences between the coaches' perceptions of male athletic directors' and female athletic directors' leadership style. No significant difference was found for any of the hypotheses atQ < .05. THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE DIVISION I, II, AND III ATHLETIC DIRECTORS ON LEADERSHIP STYLE AND PERSONALITY TRAITS A Thesis Presented to The Division of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation EMPORIA STATE UNIVERSITY In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science by Victoria Reishus July 1996 -r I r ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to the members of my committee, Dr. Joella Mehrhof, Dr. Kathy Ermler, and Dr. Howard Smith for their guidance and encouragement throughout the completion of this project. I greatly appreciate all that they have done for me and I have enjoyed working with and learning from them. I would like to thank my mother and my family for their support throughout my two years at Emporia State University. I wish to thank my motrler for her constant encouragement and understanding and for all the sacrifices she has made for me throughout my college career. I would also like to thank Dr. Ermler for all help with the statistics part of this thesis. Without this help this thesis could not have been accomplished. can't thank her enough for all her help and for being available to help me as much as she was. Thank you! A special thanks to my other "mom", Dr. Joella Mehrhof, who took me under her wing and helped me learn rlow to reacrl my goals and to overcome many obstacles. Her support and encouragement over the last two years as helped accomplish this thesis and has given me the courage to go on and get my doctorate. I couldn't have done this without her support. Thank you. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES vi CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of the Purpose................................... 2 Hypothesis........................................................... 2 Statement of Significance..................................... 3 Definitions............................................................. 3 Delimitations 3 Limitations.............................................................. 4 Assumptions........................................................... 4 Summary 4 CHAPTER TWO - REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5 Introduction............................................................. 5 Communication Styles............................................. 7 Leadership Styles 9 Athletic Administrators 15 Summary 17 CHAPTER THREE - METHODS 18 Introduction 18 iv Participants 18 Procedures 18 Instrumentation 20 Analysis of Data 22 Summary 23 CHAPTER FOUR - ANALYSIS OF DATA 24 Sample Analysis 24 Summary 25 CHAPTER FIVE - DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 30 Discussion 30 Recommendations 33 REFERENCES 35 v LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Independent T-Test for Gender by Leadership Style Score 27 2. Chi-Square Analysis for Colors by Years in Athletic Administration..................................................................... 28 3. Analysis of Variance for Score by Status............................ 29 VI CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Introduction Athletic programs have witnessed several changes over the last 20 years. One of the major changes has been the combining of once separate men's and women's programs into a unified athletic program under the direction of a single athletic director (Coakley, 1994). Under this type of organization associate and assistant athletic directors have been hired to assist in the administration of specialized programs available for athletes (Judd, 1995). Athletic directors must be competent in many areas including hiring staff, budgeting, coordinating programs, planning athletic events, communicating and scheduling. Expertise in the use of computers, collective bargaining, public relations, rules and regulations and federal school laws are all needed competencies of an athletic director (Judd, 1995). Leading an organization such as an athletic program requires planning, organizing, guiding, and controlling to accomplish the objectives of the organization. Planning is the determining of goals and projects in advance of meetings and the individuals who will be responsible for these projects. Organizing is the establishment of relationships between the activities to be performed and the personnel and physical factors needed to perform these activities. The administrator must guide and supervise subordinates to achieve the objectives established in planning with personnel. Control is the final link in 2 tl"le functional chain of administration. This involves ensuring that activities go as planned and taking action to correct any problems that arise (Leith, 1983). Watkins (1991) defined leadership as the process of influencing the activities of an organized group towards goal achievement. One of the ways of determining the effectiveness of a leader is by viewing the attitude of the co­ workers and how they function as a unit. Fagenson (1990) found a difference in the leadership styles and personalities between male and female administrators in business and education. However, no research has been done with regard to the leadership style and personality of athletic directors. In this study the leadership and personality qualities of athletic directors will be examined. Statement of the Purpose The purpose of this study was to determine if there is a difference in the leadership style and personality traits between male and female athletic directors. Hypothesis The following hypotheses served as a basis for this investigation: 1) There was no difference between female and male athletic directors with regard to their leadership styles. 2) There was no difference between female and male athletic directors with regard to their personality traits. 3) There was no difference between coaches' perceptions of the leadership style of male athletic directors and the leadership style of female athletic directors. 3 Statement of Significance The information provided by the athletic directors and coaches who participated in this study will offer significant information in the area of the personality profile of an athletic director. In addition, this study will provide information about gender differences in leadership styles of athletic directors as perceived by coaches. Definitions Administrator: The person who plans, organizes, guides, and controls to accomplish the goals of an organization. Athletic Director: The person who is responsible for all matters directly relating to the administration and supervisory affairs of an athletic department. Task-oriented: A leadership style that is concerned with productivity and technical skills. This leadership style is often associated with stereotypical masculine qualities (Rigg & Sparrow, 1994). People-oriented: A leadership that is concerned with the well-being of subordinates and social skills. This leadership style is often associated with stereotyped feminine qualities (Rigg & Sparrow, 1994). 4 Delimitations The following delimitations define the scope of the study. All participants are athletic directors of women's or men's programs at a NCAA Division I, II, or III institution. Limitations Trle findings of this study were limited by the fact that: 1) all participants were volunteers. Assumptions This study was based on the assumption that all participants were honest and candid in their response to the questionnaires. Summary The purpose of this study was to determine if there is a difference in the leadership style and personality traits between male and female athletic directors. In the remaining chapters of this study, several topics regarding leadership will discussed. 111 Crlapter II, the Review of Literature, research related topics to administration and management will be examined. Chapter III, Methodology, contains a discussion of the methods and procedures of the study. Chapter IV, Results, discusses the analysis of the data. Chapter V, Discussion and Recommendations, includes an interpretation of the results and suggestions for future studies. 6 defined as the ability to build a consensus among team members that translates into positive brainstorming. The last critical skill is institution building. This skill allows the leader to understand how the institution works and to accomplish organizational goals. Leaders in any field need to be communicators, facilitators, planners and educators. A leader provides the vision for programs under his/her direction. Lewis (1993) stated a leader should be open minded and flexible, current in his/her field, and have the ability to understand personnel in various situations and adapt the leadership style appropriate for the personnel and situation. Historically, leadership is a characteristic generally viewed as masculine (Fagenson, 1990). These masculine characteristics are often seen as aggressiveness, forcefulness, rationality, self-confidence, and competitiveness. Feminine characteristics have been perceived as kindness, gentleness, sensitivity and helpfulness. Fagenson (1990) further stated the perceived masculine and feminine traits are believed to be associated with an individual's perceived power of his/her position in the organization. Men tend to value ambition, an exciting life, a sense of accomplishment, freedom, pleasure, and social recognition (Robertson, 1990). Women tend to value world peace, inner harmony, happiness, self-respect, and a comfortable life as important. Women in general posses a higher degree of social-humanitarian characteristics, such as a sympathetic response and a desire for friendship and helpfulness. 7 Robertson (1990) believed women could not be good managers since they were too nice and understanding. Women in positions of authority are still a novelty and can lead to emotional reactions from men. Klein, Kossek, and Astrachan (1992) indicated that the reaction of males to female leaders has been marked by resistance and high levels of stress. These authors' found same-gender monitoring relationships tended to be more successful than cross-gender relationships. Women who worked for women superiors had the lowest level of role ambiguity and their working relationship was more effective than a cross-gender working relationship. This same effective work relationship was not found with male superiors and their male subordinates. Communication Styles Female leaders conducted more unscheduled meetings, monitored less, took fewer trips away from the building, and observed employees more often than their male counterparts (Shakeshaft, 1989). Female leaders were found to be more cooperative and spent more time working on business after scheduled hours. Shakeshaft (1989) stated that women administrators were much more in touch with co-workers. They exhibited a different style of interaction than male administrators. Women used a different method of communicating verbally often using a wide range of pitch and a varied rate of speaking. The women of the study tended to use language that encouraged community building and 8 were more polite and cheerful. They showed respect for their employees and co-workers by listening and echoing their important points. Females were rated higher than their male counterparts when building interpersonal relationships (Decker, 1991). Women were more considerate and displayed a need for attachment to their co-workers. Cantor, Bernay, and , Stoness (1992) indicated women often perpetuated the notion that power is unfeminine by rejecting power for fear of losing the attachment of a co-worker. According to Rigg and Sparrow (1994), women had a greater tendency to use communication to connect or to establish rapport, while men were more likely to communicate with the aim of conveying information, displaying expertise and challenging for the higher status position. Men tended to claim territory in meetings or informal discussions by spreading out in space and intruding upon other's space (Shakeshaft, 1989). Men returned the gaze when speaking to another person, while women tended to avert their eyes and deny direct contact. Communicating nonverbally can also be done through the use of an open or closed door policy. Rigg and Sparrow (1994) found most women have an open door policy, which would make co-workers feel the leader was approachable and welcomed the co-workers into the office. Men more often used a semi-closed door policy by using their secretaries to field calls and to keep appointments on time. 9 Leadership Styles Historically, Western society has not attributed power to women, and women, in response, have been uncomfortable using power in the workplace (Cantor, Bernay, & Stoness, 1992). These authors attributed these differences to the fact women are taught to nurture and care for others, while males are taught to be aggressive and competitive. Men often help this feeling of powerlessness of women by perpetuating the notion that power is masculine. For example, when a man discusses a power tactic, he will use a traditional male sport or a war metaphor that have traditionally been viewed as masculine. Women have learned to use power in different ways than their male counterparts. Women use manipulation as a powerful tool to get people to believe in the theory or idea being presented (Cantor, Bernay, & Stoness, 1992). Female leaders also use personal power, which is the ability to have people accomplish tasks because they trust or admire the leader. The drawback to this type of power is that the leader is dependent on others for the personal relationship that supplies the power. Helplessness, is the third level of power used by women. Women have learned that helplessness is an effective and socially accepted way to control their world. However, the acquisition of power, whether by males or females, does not guarantee leadership will emerge automatically. 10 Cantor, Bernay, and Stoness (1992) interviewed 25 women who held a public office at either the state or federal level. These women were interviewed to determine what made them strong enough to survive a grueling campaign and then stay in office long enough to make a difference. Three issues seemed to be the common thread that linked the leadership qualities of these women. Cantor, Bernay, and Stoness (1992) organized these issues into tl""le equation Leadership= Competent Self + Creative Aggression + Woman Power. The first part of Cantor, Bernay, and Stoness (1992) equation, the competent self, is defined as the belief in one's self to remain unchanging in the way one responds to people. This feeling of competence allowed these women to feel they were protected when they took risks that the public could criticize or praise. The second part of the equation, creative aggression, was defined as the ability to take the initiative in leading others and speaking on concerns of the organization. These women felt comfortable with their aggression and competitiveness. They stated aggression enhanced their personal growth if used creatively and wisely (Cantor, Bernay, & Stoness, 1992). The third part of the equation, Woman Power, was described as the power used to make society a better place. The authors stated women enjoyed using power to advance a specific agenda. These women enjoyed the attention power gave them and used that power to help others, not just to help 11 This power was seen as an integration of the typically feminine qualities with some masculine characteristics. Rigg and Sparrow (1994) conducted a study using a group of 4 women and 12 men in middle management positions whose job descriptions were similair, on paper. They found the women leaders had significantly lower scores on independence and significantly higher scores on anxiety. The women had broader goals and wanted to make the work environment more enjoyable than did the men. In addition, the women in the study worked in teams and used consensual forms of decision making to involve everyone and then shared the credit. According to Rigg and Sparrow, these characteristics and values demonstrated by these women have become more popular in the management field. Walker (1995) stated women want to develop leadership behaviors that display values and beliefs congruent with their own values and beliefs and not ones imposed by others. He indicated women have begun to reconstruct models of leadership and emphasized that for women to develop as leaders it will take time, support, and most importantly, opportunities to create meaningful experiences. Women have viewed their personal and professional lives as a part of a continuum of increasing responsibility and complexity. According to Stover (1995), female leaders described themselves as typically "hands-on" people who lacked the skill of delegation. When men were asked to describe female leaders 12 they stated women were much more emotional than men (Stover, 1995). Stover associated this emotion to the fact women described their organization as a family and spoke with concern about their employees. Men almost never saw their organization as a family atmosphere. Robertson(1990) found male leaders to be aggressive, independent, objective, dominant, adventuresome, self-confident, and ambitious. These characteristics are perceived as positive and valued in our society as healthy adults traits. Walker (1995) suggested society has encouraged males to be aggressive, while it encouraged our females to be agreeable and compliant. He suggested this has retarded the development of leadership skills for women. Stover (1995) stated men often described female business owners as much more focused and serious than their male counterparts. Jensen, White, and Singh (1990) found that when asked their self-perception of leadership styles, women associated themselves with having positive leadership skills with an authoritarian style. Cantor, Bernay, and Stoness (1992) believed female leaders are often assessed by men with a preference for a masculine approach. For this reason women have been forced to reconcile contradictory expectations in order to succeed. These contradictions are not imposed upon men. Examples of these contradictions include taking risks, while remaining consistently outstanding; exhibiting a firm demeanor, but not a macho facade; and being ambitious, without receiving equal reward. 13 Women are generally described as people-oriented (Rigg and Sparrow, 1994). Women put an emphasis on team management and the sharing of praise. People-oriented leaders yield a significantly higher rating than task­ oriented leaders on satisfaction, concern, social skill, and femininity (Decker, 1991 ). Trle task-oriented style is seen as more masculine and is related to future production, deserving a raise/promotion, overall effectiveness, seriousness, concern for productivity, technical skill, and masculinity (Decker, 1991). According to Decker males who displayed a people-orientation style were seen as possessing feminine characteristics, while females who displayed a task­ orientation style were seen possessing fewer feminine characteristics. Regardless of gender, a manager displaying a task orientation was viewed as more masculine and less feminine than a people-oriented manager. The leadership style of males has been viewed as detached, analytical, systematic, and rule based (Rigg and Sparrow, 1994). Men tended to be more political, flamboyant and forceful, while operating closer to traditional policy and practice. Research indicates male administrators are more directive, authoritative, and aim to lead through inspiring confidence through work effort. Rigg and Sparrow (1994) found that if a staff member performed badly under the leadership of a male, the leader would adapt his response to a perceived cause and then punish. Women approach the same situation with concern for people 14 and use knowledge and insight as a resource for managing. These researchers also found women were more willing to share credit and take the criticism, while male leaders took more credit for success but tended to blame others for failure. Conflict management was another area which differences in leadership styles occurred between men and women. According to Shakeshaft (1989) women withdrew from conflict and tried to use collaborative strategies, while males more often used authoritarian responses. Studies indicate women were more effective at resolving conflict among staff members and using conflict reduction techniques than their male counterparts. Robertson (1990) categorized 92 traits typically characteristic of "men in general" or "women in general". Robertson found 86 traits were identified as important for effective management. Of those 86 traits, 60 were perceived to be typically more characteristic of "men in general" and 8 were judged to be more typically characteristic of "females in general". Miller and Williams (1984) indicated women themselves have not been professionally interested in administering both men's and women's athletic programs. They found women believed athletic leaders st"lOuld be men and valued male leaders more highly than female leaders. Although there are more women in administrative roles today than there were 10 years ago, the belief that males are better administrators continues to be present in the minds of many individuals. Robertson (1990) stated prospective female leaders need to be identified and encouraged to go into 15 administrative fields. However, in order to do this women need to alter their views of themselves. Miller (1992) further stated women needed to believe in themselves, elevate their role expectations, and perceive their own gender as competent. Athletic Administrators Lederman (1991) described the job of athletic director as, historically, a ceremonial post that has been used to reward and retain popular men who were nearing the end of their coaching profession. Universities have wanted to capitalize on the visibility and popularity of the person to assist with fund raising. These retiring coaches/athletic directors were expected to attend sporting events, shake hands, and give speeches. Although many of the present big-time athletic directors are men who have become synonymous with their institutions, the standard is changing. Colleges and universities have begun to realize the athletic director is much more than a figure head position. Currently, athletic directors come from business and administrative backgrounds ratrler than coaching positions. Today only 20 of 107 Division I athletic directors continue to coach, 14 of the 75 Division I-AA athletic directors still coach, and about one-third of the Division II athletic directors continue to coach (Lederman, 1991 ). The study conducted by Miller (1992) indicated there were no differences in sex-role personality traits and behaviors of male and female athletic directors. Most male and female athletic administrators displayed were either androgynous 16 (competitive, impersonal, forceful, and logical) or masculine personality traits. Relatively few athletic directors, regardless of their gender, displayed feminine sex-type behavior. One of the first women to become a head athletic director of a Division I program was Debbie Yow. She was hired by the University of St. Louis, where she hired high-profile coaches for men's basketball and women's volleyball, raised the graduation rate to 92 % and tripled the number of scholarships in some sports. For Yow, gender seemed to be more of an issue for outsiders than for co-workers and peers. She displayed feminine qualities, but used a no­ nonsense approach. Yow followed self-imposed rules with regard to projecting an administrative image (Kramer, 1994). To be in athletic administration a person needs to work long hours, deal with budgets, schedule contests and officials, maintain the facilities, hire coaches and staff, and deal with public relations (Edwards, 1991). Athletic administrators need to possess a multitude of individual skills in the proper combination to produce the best possible product. Three essential skills of an athletic administrator are technical skills, which include methods, process, procedures, and techniques; human skills which include motivation; and conceptual skills, which include the ability to see the athletic organization in relationship to the university and community (Leith, 1983). 17 Summary The purpose of this study was to determine if there was a difference in the leadership style and personality traits between male and female athletic directors. Leadership styles include coaching, supporting, delegating, and directing behavior. Leaders need to have skills in conflict resolution, networking, consensus building, and goal setting. Research indicates the leadership styles of men and women are different. Male administrators tend to be more directive, authoritative, and task-oriented. Female administrators tend to be more supportive, social, and people-oriented. Leadership has often been viewed as characteristically masculine. Qualities of aggressiveness, forcefulness, and competitiveness have been linked to leadership skills. However, as more women enter the field of administration this view has begun to crlange. Qualities traditionally associated with females such as sensitivity, cooperation, and approachability have emerged as acceptable leadership behaviors. Athletic directors have historically been men who have been successful coaches. Research indicates in most cases, both men and women in athletic director positions exhibit either androgynous or masculine leadership behaviors. 18 CHAPTER III METHODS Introduction The purpose of this study was to determine if there is a difference in the leadership style and personality traits between male and female athletic directors. This chapter describes the methods and procedures used in this study. Information on population and sampling procedures, validity and reliability of the instruments, and the statistical design is also discussed. Participants The participants in this study were Atrlletic Directors from Division I (N= 9), Division II (N= 5), and Division III (N= 7) institutions. A total of 23 male athletic directors and 19 female athletic directors were utilized in this study. The second group of participants in this study were coaches from Division I (N= 21), Division II (N= 11), and Division III (N= 9) institutions. All the participants were volunteers. Procedures Permission to conduct this study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board for Treatment of Human Subjects at Emporia State University (See Appendix A). The athletic directors were selected from the 1996 Blue Book of College Athletics. Only athletic directors from institutions that had two athletic directors (one athletic director for the women's athletic program and a different 19 athletic director for the men's athletic program) were selected for inclusion in this study. After the institutions and athletic directors were identified, a letter was sent to each athletic director. This letter contained a description of the two questionnaires utilized in this study and detailed instructions on the way the questionnaires should be completed. The two questionnaires were a leadership style questionnaire and True Colors (TriPhoenix Publishing, 1990). The athletic directors were asked to complete the questionnaires within three weeks and return them to the researcher in the self-addressed stamped envelope provided for them. All participants were assigned a code number to assure the confidentiality of the participants' responses. At the end of the three weeks the researcher telephoned all the athletic directors who had not responded to the initial letter. During this telephone call, the researcher asked if the participant was still willing to be part of this study. If U"le athletic director indicated srle/he was not willing to participate in the study, that individual was dropped from the study (N=8). If the athletic director indicated she/he was willing to participate in the study, an appointment was scheduled to complete the questionnaires by phone. The coaches were selected from the 1996 Blue Book of College Athletics. Four coaches were chosen from each respective institution. The coaches selected to complete the instrument were the Head Football, Head Men's Basketball, Head Women's Basketball, and Head Women's Volleyball coaches. 20 A letter was sent to each coach containing a description of the questionnaire utilized in this study and detailed instructions on the way the questionnaire should be completed. The coaches were asked to complete the Coach's leadership style questionnaire within three weeks and return it to the researcher in the self-addressed stamped envelope provided for them. All participants were assigned a code number to assure the confidentiality of the participants' responses. At tl"le end of the 18 days, the researcher telephoned all the coaches who had not responded to the initial letter. If a participant refused to answer the questionnaire by mail or phone that coach was dropped from the study. A replacement of the coach occurred using either the softball coach or the baseball coach. The choice was dependent upon the sport in which the coach being replaced held responsibility. If the coach was responsible for men's basketball or football, he/she was replaced with the baseball coach. If the coach being replaced was responsible for women's basketball or volleyball, then he/she was replaced by tl"le softball coacl"l. Instrumentation True Colors (TriPhoenix Publishing, 1990) was developed as a simple paper and pencil measure of personality traits. The instrument consists of four different color character cards that identify personality strengths. Each color is indicative of a person's character. Usually, individuals have specific personality characteristics that are more prominent than others. These characteristics are reflected in this instrument as the brightest color. Other colors add dimension, 21 depth and tone to the brightest color of the person. The answers were recorded on the answer sheet that accompanied the cards. This instrument can be found in Appendix B. The scale consisted of four sections. In section one, the participants were asked to visualize themselves and rank all the colors from most like them (1) to least like them (4). The second section required the participants to read cards that contained various personality characteristics. They were asked to rank the cards from most like them (1) to least like them (4). The third section contained a series of descriptive words. The participants ranked each set of words from most like them (1) to least like them (4). The final section required the participants to add the numbers from the three preceding sections. The lowest score represented the primary or brightest color of the participant. The reliability of True Colors is .98. The way in which the reliability was determined was not available from the TriPhoenix Publishing Co. The instrument used to assess leadership style was developed by the researcher (See Appendix C and D). Tl"le scale consisted of 8 items. Each item was rated on a seven point Likert-like scale ranging from strongly agree (1) to strongly disagree (7). This scale was a rank scale that consisted of four items that described leadership behavior characteristics of a person-centered leader and four items that described leadership behavior characteristics of a task­ centered leader. The reliability of the leadership scale was established using a test­ 22 retest method. Three administrators of athletic associated with Division II programs completed the scale and three weeks later they completed the test again. The test-retest reliability of the leadership scale was .50. The validity for the leadership scale was determined trlrough the use of a jury of experts. The experts were two Athletic Directors and the Chair of Physical Education at a Division II institution. The jury was asked to determine if this scale assessed leadership styles. The jury offered suggestions on the wording of the statements. The final leadership scale was developed based on suggestions and changes made by the jury of experts. Analysis of Data The differences between male and female athletic directors on leadership styles were analyzed by an independent t-test (Hypothesis 1). The differences between male and female athletic directors on True Colors assessment were analyzed by a Chi-Square (Hypothesis 2). The differences between the coaches perceptions of male athletic directors and female athletic directors leadership style were analyzed by a one-way analysis of variance (Hypothesis 3). All data were analyzed at the Q < .05 level of significance. Summary The purpose of this study was to determine if there was a difference in the leadership style and personality traits between male and female athletic directors. The participants were 34 athletic directors and 41 coacrles from Division I, II, and III institutions. Participants completed two scales, a leadership ·a~ue!Je" 10 S!SAleUe AeM-auo e pue 'lsal-lluapuadapu! ue 'aJenbs-!I..p e 6u!sn pazAleue aJaM eleo ·SJOIO~ ami pue aJ!euu0'lsanb alAls £z 24 CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA The purpose of this study was to determine if there was a difference in the leadership style and personality traits between male and female athletic directors. The subjects were tested using two questionnaires: a True Colors analysis and a leadership scale. This chapter presents an analysis of the data obtained from the two questionnaires. An independent t-test was used to test the difference between male and female athletic directors with regard to their leadership styles. A chi­ square was used to determine if there was a difference between male and female athletic directors with regard to their personality traits. A one-way analysis of variance was used to test the difference between coach's perceptions of the leadership style of male athletic directors and the leadership style of female athletic directors. All data were analyzed at the Q.. < .05 level of significance. Sample Analysis Forty-two athletic director's were selected to participate in this study. However, eight participants chose not to participate and were dropped from the study. Therefore, analysis of data is based on the data obtained from the 34 participants, (19 male and 15 female) who completed the study. The first hypothesis stated there was no difference between female and male athletic directors on their leadership style. An independent t-test was used 25 to analyze the data. The independent variable was gender (1 = male, 2= female) and the dependent variable was the participant's leadership style score. Table 1 indicates the results for this hypothesis. There was no significant difference between male and female athletic directors. This hypothesis was not rejected at the Q < .05 level of significance. Hypothesis two stated there was no differences between female and male athletic directors on their personality traits. A chi-square was performed to analyze the data. Table 2 indicates there was no significant difference between male and female athletic directors and their color category. Hypothesis two was not rejected at the Q < .05 level of significance. Hypothesis three stated there was no difference between coach's perceptions of the leadership style of male athletic directors and the leadership style of female athletic directors. The independent variable was the gender of the athletic directors and the dependent variable was the coach's perception of the athletic director's leadership style. Table 3 indicates the one-way analysis of variance. There was no significant di'lference between coaches' perceptions of male athletic directors leadership style and coaches' perceptions of female athletic director's leadership style. Hypothesis three was not rejected at the Q < .05 level of significance. Summary The hypotheses for this study were tested using three different statistical procedures. Hypothesis one was analyzed using an independent t-test to 26 determine if there was difference in leadership styles between male and female athletic directors. The results indicated no significant differences between male and female athletic director's. Hypothesis two was analyzed using a chi-square to determine if there was a difference in personality traits between female and male athletic directors. Results indicated no significant difference between male and female athletic director's and their color category. Hypothesis three used an one-way analysis of variance to determine if there was a difference between coach's perceptions of male and female leadership styles. The results indicated no significant difference between coaches' perceptions of male athletic director's leadership style and coaches' perceptions of female athletic director's. 27 Table 1 Independent t-test Gender by Leadership Style Score Variable # of cases Mean SD SE of Mean Leader Gender 1 18 34.8889 4.013 .946 Gender 2 16 34.7500 4.405 1.101 Mean Difference =.1389 F =.249 P =.621 28 Table 2 Chi Square Analysis Colors by Gender Color Blue 1 Gold 2 Green 3 Orange 4 Column /Total Males Females Raw/Total 0 3 3/11.5 11 6 17/65.4 3 1 4/15.4 1 1 2/7.7 15/57.7 11/42.3 26/100.0 Chi-Square Value D.F. Significance Pearson 4.97291 3 .17379 Likelihood Ration 6.08010 3 .10778 Mantel-Haenszel test 1.25571 1 .26247 Minimum Expected Frequecy - .846 29 Table 3 Analysis of Variance Score by Status Source OF 55 MS F Prob. Between Groups 3 30.8170 10.2723 .3456 .7925 Within Groups 38 1129.5877 29.7260 30 CHAPTER V DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS T~lis study was designed to determine if there was a difference in the leadership style and personality traits between male and female athletic directors. The sample population was comprised of 19 male athletic directors, 15 female athletic directors, and 41 coaches from Division I, II, and III institutions. The athletic directors were asked to complete two questionnaires; a leadership questionnaire and True Colors analysis. The coaches were asked to complete the True Colors analysis. The questionnaires were used to develop a leadership and personality profile of the athletic directors. Discussion The results of this study showed no significant difference between male and female athletic directors in leadership styles or personality traits. These findings conflict with other researchers who found that leadership styles of men and women were different (Fagenson, 1990; Robertson, 1990). According to Rigg and Sparrow (1994) female leaders were more people-oriented, while male leaders were generally described as task-oriented. They also indicated male administrators were more directive and authoritative, while women were more concerned with people and used knowledge and insight as a resource for managing. Coaches were asked to analyze the leadership styles of athletic directors through the use of the leadership questionnaire. The majority of the coaches 31 perceived their athletic director as task-oriented, just as the athletic directors had perceived themselves. The results of this research did confirm the findings of Miller and Williams (1984). These researchers conducted a study that indicated there was no difference in the personality traits and behaviors of male and female athletic administrators. Most administrators, whether male or female, were either androgynous or masculine in the sex-role personality traits. Few athletic directors, regardless of their gender, possessed what generally has been regarded as feminine personality traits. The True Colors instrument was used in this study to determine personality traits. The participants were asked to describe themselves by selection of several descriptive words. These descriptions were then associated with a color. Analysis of data taken from the True Colors instrument showed the majority of athletic directors, regardless of gender, exhibited "Gold" personality traits. This gold color indicates a task-oriented personality. This type of person is seen as responsible, sensible, and dependable. They are organized and handle details, follow the rules, and are comfortable with routine work. These qualities would be similar to the characteristics necessary for a good leader as indicated in the review of literature (Judd, 1995; Walker, 1991; Fagenson, 1990). Further analysis of the data from the True Colors instrument completed by the athletic directors found that few of the athletic directors indicated they portrayed strong personality traits from the other three indicator colors. Only two 32 portrayed strong personality traits from the other three indicator colors. Only two of the athletic directors scored themselves in the "Green" personality traits. These individuals are often seen as adventuresome, spontaneous, restless, and independent. Four of the athletic directors showed scores that placed them in the "Green" color. These people are considered to be curious, inventive, logical, and conceptual. Only three of the athletic directors showed preference for the personality indicator color of "Blue". The "Blue" personality traits are generally seen as being warm, communicative, compassionate, and feeling. These are often seen as the feminine characteristics of leadership (Robertson, 1990; Shakeshaft, 1989). Athletic programs at all levels of collegiate administration have begun to witness a change in the organizational structure. The combining of women's and men's athletic programs into a unified program under the direction of a single athletic director seems inevitable (Coakley, 1994). Throughout this study, the researcher received correspondence regarding recent shifts in various athletic programs and their administration to a sanctioned one athletic director responsible for both men's and women's programs. This narrowing of the organizational structure of athletic programs may reduce the opportunities for women in athletic administration as head athletic directors. Those entering the athletic areas of coaching or athletic administration have often been sports enthusiasts for most of their lives. Most have been on 33 athletic teams since grade school with many participating of collegiate varsity teams. For these individuals, personal athletic skill level is high and competition has become a way of life. The role and job description of the athletic director had begun to change. Athletic directors are still responsible for hiring staff, bUdgeting and scheduling. However, athletic directors are now retained for skills in personnel assessment, public relations, and legal knowledge. Experience in the business aspects of administration is replacing coaching skills as the major emphasis of successful athletic administration. In time, the personality traits and leadership styles of athletic administrators may change to include some of the generally considered feminine qualities of leadership. However, as indicated through this research, those individuals presently associated with athletic administration exhibit androgynous or masculine personality traits and leadership styles. Recommendations On the basis of the results of this study, the following areas are suggested recommendations for further investigation. 1) A similar study that compares the personality traits and leadership styles of head coaches, such as men's and women's basketball coaches, should be done. 2) A similar study should be performed that compares the personality traits and leadership styles of professional coacrles from various sports. 3) A similar study should be performed that investigates the personality traits and leadership styles of university department chairs. 34 4) A similar study should be conducted that compares the leadership styles and personality traits of physical educators and other educators. 35 REFERENCES Cantor, D.W., Bernay, T., & Stoness, J. (1992). Women in power the secrets of leadership. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston. Coakley, J.J. (1994). Sport in society. Mosby. St. Louis. Decker, W. H. (1991), Style, gender, and humor effects in evaluating leaders. The Mid-Atlantic Journal of Business, 27, 117-128. Edwards, D.M. (1991). So you're a new athletic director. Scholastic Coach, 60, 5-8. Evans, V., Ramsey, J.P., Johnson, D., Renwick, D., & Vienneau, J.G. (1986). A comparison of job satisfaction leadership behavior and job perception between male and female athletic directors. Plwsical Educator, 43, 39-43. Fagenson, E.S. (1990). Perceived masculine and feminine attributes examined as a function of individuals' sex and level in the organizational power hierarchy: A test of four theoretical perspectives. Journal of Applied Psychology, Th 204-210. Jensen, T.D., White, D.O., & Singh, R. (1990), Impact of gender, hierarchical position, and leadership styles on work-related values. Journal of Business Research, 20, 145-152. Judd, M. R. (1995). A gender comparison of competencies important for success in college athletic administration. Physical Educator, 80, 8-13. 36 Klein, E.B., Kossek, A.E., & Astrachan, J.H. (1992). Effective reactions to leadership education: an exploration of the same-gender effect. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 28, 102-117. Kramer, S.D. (1994). One to watch. Sporting News, 218, 31-33. Lederman, D. (1991). Athletics directors debate how to demonstrate their willingness to work for sports reform. Chronicle of Higher Education, 37, A23-A24. Leith, L.M. (1983). The underlying processes of athletic administration. Physical Educator, 40, 211-217. Lewis, A. (1993). Leadership styles. American Association of School Administration. Miller, D.M., & Williams, J.M. (1984). Do women have the right stuff? Athletic Business, 8, 44-45. Miller, J. (1992). Gender and Supervision: The legitimation of authority in relationship to task. Sociological Perspectives, 35, 137-162. Rigg, C., & Sparrow, J. (1994). Gender, Diversity and Working Styles. Women in Management Review, 9, 9-16. Robertson, P.E. (1990). An investigation of personality characteristics and demographic profiles of women and men in management positions (Doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina-Greensboro, 1990). Dissertation Abstracts International, Shakeshaft, C. (1989). Women in educational administration. Sage Publications, Inc. Newbury Park, Ca. 37 Stover, C. (1995). Styles of success: research on gender differences in management style. Small Business Forum, 131, 52-62. Walker, D.T. (1995). Patterns in Women's Emerging Leadership. Educational Considerations, 22, 15-17. Watkins, D.L., & Rikard, G.L. (1991). Perceptions of leader behaviors of athletic directors: implications for change. Physical Educator, 48, 2-5. Sl~3r8ns NV'lI'JnH .:10 lV'I\O~ddV' V' XION3ddV' 02/95 OCT 03 1SfJ5 APPENDIX C APPLICATION FOR APPROVAL TO USE HUMA.t.~ SUBJECTS This application should be submitted, along with the Informed Consent Document. to the Institutional Review . Board for Treatment of Human Subjects, Rcs~ and Grants Center, Campus Box 4048. 1. Name of ~cipal Investigator(s) (Individu&(s) administering the procedures): ___~C11Jg":r-' BEI$Id~0.Io..;;:::.S _ 2. Departmental Affiliation: _---L.l-l..L..J?~t;:~r<,O_. _ 3. Person to whom notifiattion should be sent: ~ CToK 11'\ RE /5 gUS Address: e.5(] B"",-6f'-tJ....o.!.3~------- Telephone: 3 L./ l~ 4. TItle of Project: Gender ""b.LWAQOlO.S L~ L..-\-.I...do..lo.I.ll:.a.....l..L..L..1.i'.L--J...j.J.J-:.~_JJs.J..nQ.­ ..J 1)IVIS1QQ I. OQUe(4. o.cx1 IJOIVprSrrLi\ alb IJJc c1.LAQcmrs. 5. Funding Agency (ifapplicable): . 6. Project PurpOSe(~): JO cUscO"e(' 1+~ he re L:J a. c1~ '()~ I() tro~s~1.t3 u() d . _ c: .2 ~u.b·es b.d-~1l) rro.ta.andi1Y'alJ oYnk+le.clAAi2c:rKS atJ)rIIS]OY)..L e ~ .. CD) ~.so ( unrvV,SJ17es.oJ ~ Oi .. .. .. f-' 7. Describe the proposed subjects: (age, sex, race, or other special charactc:ristics, 5Uch as students in a specific class, etc.) Mh~liQ ])1'recJofs {fCyV1 D/'JI~IO() J: schoo is OC1oSS lliC.Oun tty. ihe.(e $U; 1/ be an even Qrf)ou/} f 01 w()/nen Q n d IY7.i n